Tag Archives: Spain

Pope Leo XIII on the relics of St. James at Compostella

St. James the Moor slayer

Today is the feast of St. James, the brother of St. John the Evangelist, who evangelized Spain and was martyred by Herod Agrippa. His relics were transferred back to Spain and are today preserved in Compostella. Here I am providing Pope Leo XIII’s document Deus Omnipotentis, where he verifies the relics interred there are in fact of St. James the Apostle. This document is not on the internet anywhere (including the Vatican), but I found it on the Acta Sancta Sedis. It is entirely in Latin, for now, and it may contain some OCR errors (the Vatican did the OCR, not me!) I will return to this at some point and make a translation, when I am less bogged down.

DEUS OMNIPOTENS
LEO EPISCOPUS
SERVUS SERVORUM DEI
AD PERPETUAM REI MEMORIAM.

Deus Omnipotens, qui mirabilis est in Sanctis suis, providentissime voluit, ut, quum eorum animae caelo receptae gaudio perfundantur sempiterno, corpora condita terris singulari observantia colantur ab hominibus et religionis splendore honestentur. — In his vero Dei providentia et misericordia luculenter apparet, qui cum multa sinat per ea divinitus accidere, simul et utilitati consulit nostrae, et gloriae, quam sancti sui consequuntur in terris. Haec enim caelitum beatissimorum pignora, quae nobiscum manent, quoties invisimus, toties admirabilem praeclarissimarum virtutum seriem, quibus illi in mortali vitae cursu in exemplum ceteris praeluxere, memoria repetimus, et ad eas imitandas vehementer adducimur. Sunt autem , teste Ioanne Damasceno, sanctorum corpora perennes in Ecclesia fontes, ex quibus tamquam rivuli salutares effunduntur in populos christianos dona caelestia, et ea omnia quibus maxime indigemus. — Quapropter non mirum est si providentis Dei consilio nonnulla sanctorum corpora, quae antea in oblivion posteritatis velut in tenebris delitescebant, bis potissimum temporibus in lucem prodeant, quibus et Ecclesia maximis agitatur fluctibus, et egent christiani acriori ad virtutem incitamento. Hoc nostro vertente saeculo cum a potestate tenebrarum teterrimum indictum fuerit bellum adversus Dominum et adversus Christum eius, auspicato quidem et divinitus inventi sunt sacri cineres sancti Francisci Assisiensis, sanctae Clarae Virginis Legiferae, sanctorum Ambrosii Pontificis Doctoris, Gervasii et Protasii martyrum, Philippi et Iacobi Apostolorum. — Horum in numerum adsciscendi sunt sanctus IACOBUS MAIOR Apostolus et discipuli eius Athanasius et Theodorus, quorum corpora nuper in templo principe civitatis Compostellanae reperta sunt.

Ex constanti et pervulgato apud omnes sermone, iam inde ab Apostolorum aetate, memoriae proditum est, publicisque Decessorum Nostrorum litteris confirmatum, sancti Iacobi corpus, postquam ille ab Rege Herode capitis damnatus martyrium fecerat, a duobus discipulis eius, Athanasio et Theodoro clam fuisse subductum. Hi cum valde metuerent reliquias sancti Apostoli nullas futuras, si Iudaei corpore potirentur, eo in navim imposito solverunt ex Iudaea, deinde sospite transmissione attigere Hispaniam, eamque circumvecti ad extremas Gallaeciae oras appulerunt, ubi, uti pia et antiqua traditio habet, post Christi in caelum ascensum sanctus Iacobus divino consilio apostolico munere functus erat. Ibi quum Hispaniensem civitatem quae Iria Flavia nominabatur, accessissent , in praediolo quodam manere decreverunt, mortalesque Apostoli exuvias, quas secum avexerant, in crypta saxo defossa intra loculum romano opere constructum condiderunt, parvumque super erexerunt sacellum. Sed exacto vitae cursu cum Athanasius et Theodorus naturae concessissent, christiani, qui ea loca incolebant, tum propter eximiam de duobus viris opinionem, tum ne hi a corpore quod in vita sancte asservaverant post mortem seiungerentur, ambos in eodem sepulcro composuerunt unumquemque ad Apostoli latus. — Vexatis paullo post caesisque christianis, ubicumque terrarum Romani Imperatores dominabantur, sacrum hypogeum delituit aliquandiu. Verum ubi, tranquillitate parta, apud Hispanos homines, qui praecipua sancti Iacobi religione tenebantur, de translato eius corpore fama percrebuit, ad sepulturae locum concursus fieri coepit, haud minori fortasse pietatis studio quam quo Romae et alibi sepulcra Principum Apostolorum, et Hieromartyrum coemeteria visebantur. Labentibus vero annis cum barbari primum. deinde Arabes imperio ductuque Muzae invasissent in Hispaniam, et eas praesertim regiones, quae mare adiacent crebris incursionibus divexarent, sacer sepulcri loculus, exciso et everso sacello, sub ruinarum mole in obscuritate latuit diuturna. — Non tamen vetustate obliterata est apud Hispanos sacri pignoris memoria. Ineunte enim saeculo IX cum Rex Alfonsus, qui dictus est Castus, Hispaniam obtineret, et Iriae Fla viae Ecclesiae datus esset Episcopus Theodomirus, super cryptam, quae sancti Iacobi et duorum discipulorum reliquias contegebat, constans fama est veluti refixam caelo stellam splendidissimam apparuisse, quae suo fulgore indicium faceret loci, ubi sacri cineres conditi fuerunt. Episcopus Theodomirus tanto felix auspicio auctori Deo supplicationes indixit, deinde submotis reiectisque veteris sacelli ruderibus, eo investigando pervenit, ubi, tamquam in cognato sepulcro, tria sanctorum corpora distinctis loculis iacebant. Tunc ut locus ille religione sanctus humanis esset praesidiis munitior, murum in circuitu eduxit, sacrumque thesaurum firmis substructionibus circumsepsit. Quae res ut ad aures Regis Alfonsi pervenerunt ad sanctum Apostoli sepulcrum venerabundus statim accessit, vetus sacellum in novam formam a solo reficiendum curavit, iussitque, fundi illius possessionem terminis ad tria millia prolatis, in templi tuitionem perpetuo adtribui. Urbs interea cryptae propinqua, quae hactenus Iria Flavia vocabatur, ex visu elucentis stellae potioribus auspiciis Compostellae sibi nomen imposuit. — Sed ad illustrandum Apostoli sepulcrum, praeter illud caeleste signum, non pauca divinitus facta sunt, ita ut non modo ex finitimis civitatibus et oppidis, sed a longinquis etiam locis ad sacros cineres supplicatum populi venirent. Quare Rex Alfonsus III Decessoris sui exemplum imitatus exaedificata nem amplioris templi aggressus est, tamen ut antiquus loculus intactus maneret, et illud properata molitione absolutum regio sumptu exornavit.

Exeunte saeculo X efferatae Arabum copiae, rursus in Hispaniam irruptione facta, oppida complura diripuerunt, ac magna civium edita strage, omnia ferro et incendiis vastarunt. Nefandissimus Emirus Almansor, quem sepulcri sancti Jacobi cultus non latuerat, ad direptionem et eversionem animum iam intenderat; quod si perficere potuisset, maximum Hispanorum praesidium, et in quo erat eorum spes omnis, sese expugnaturum arbitrabatur. Quapropter iis, quos praedonibus suis praefecerat, imperat Compostellam recta proficiscantur, urbem adoriantur, templum et sacra Omnia dedant igni delenda. At Deus exortum iam et dilapsum incendium ad presbyterii limen restinxit, et Almansorem eiusque copias foedis terminibus percussit, quibus divexati Compostella discesserunt et fere omnes cum Almansore subita morte perierunt. — Extabant adhuc sparsi circa hypogeum cineres hostilis ferocitatis reliquiae, divini praesidii documentum. Quibus e malis ubi se emersit Hispania, Compostellae Episcopus Didacus Pelaez, in ipsis ruderibus veteris templi ampliorem aedem ab inchoato excitavit, quae a posteriori Episcopo Didaco Gelmirez, splendidiore cultu et maiestate aucta Basilicae nomine et iure donata est. Huius Episcopi praecipua cura fuit sacras reliquias sibi traditas recognoscere, et educto in sublime pariete loculum inaccessum reddere. Quae inter agenda ex sacris ossibus particulam quamdam dissociare non dubitavit, eamque sancto Attoni Pistoriensi Episcopo adiectis litteris dono misit. Partem hanc ex hodierna peritorum inspectione compertum est demptam fuisse ex capite: ea enim est, quae apophisis mastoidea vocatur, sanguine adhuc respersa, utpote quae gladii ictu, quum caput cervicibus abscindentur, percussa est. Hae reliquiae prodigiorum fama et avita civium religione sanctae singulari pietatis studio coluntur adhuc ab Ecclesia Pistoriensi.— Interea Hispaniensis Sanctuarii fama longe lateque per vulgata, innumerabiles peregrinorum cohortes ex universis fere terrarum partibus illuc confluebant, et adeo crevit frequentia, ut ingentibus peregrinantium catervis ad sancta Palestinae loca et limina Apostolorum Petri et Pauli, merito compararentur. Ac proinde Romani Pontifices Decessores Nostri dispensationem voti de peragenda Compostellana peregrinatione suscepti, Apostolicae Sedi reservarunt.

Saeculo XVI nondum exacto, cohorta est foeda et atrox tempestas, qua per Hispaniam fere totam saeviente, sacrum Apostoli sepulcrum in periculo fuit non tam communi, quam proprio. Indicto enim bello Hispanos inter et Britannos, hi, qui a catholica fide ad haeresim desciverant, praedari et diruere catholicorum templa, et sacra omnia violare et delere sibi constituerant. Quapropter in Gallaecia, regione mari eitima, exposito exercitu, sacras aedes everterunt, caelitum beatorum imagines, reliquias et quae omnia sanctiora habentur, haeretico furore combusserunt, deinde ad perniciosam, ut aiebant, superstitionem extinguendam, Compost eliam versus castra moverunt. — Praeerat id temporis Compostellanae Ecclesiae piissimus Archiepiscopus Ioannes a sancto Clemente, qui collatis cum Canonicis consiliis de sacris Sanctorum reliquiis tuto in loco recondendis, hanc ^praecipuam de sancti Iacobi exuviis curam sibi suscepit. Sed cum iam hostes instarent, tumultuario opere ab eo clanculum tria corpora condita sunt : cavit tamen ut novus loculus ex veteris illius, romano more constructi, ruderibus constitueretur, ut aliquod superesset posteris earum identitatis testimonium. Postquam recessum ab armis et belli pericula propulsata sunt, cives Compostellani, et peregrini qui ea loca frequentes adiverant pro certo habebant sacros cineres eodem esse adhuc in loco ubi primitus composita requieverant. Posteri autem in ea opinione fuerunt qua maiores, ita tamen ut temporibus nostris censerent christifideles in abside sancti sacelli maioris eadem sacra pignora servari, quapropter illuc ad adorandum propius accederent, et Basilicae Clerus quotidianae supplicationi ibi cum antiphonae cantu finem poneret.

Cum vero Venerabilis Frater Noster S.R.E. Cardinalis Paya’Rico hodiernus Archiepiscopus Compostellanus aliquot abhinc annis restituendae Basilicae operam aggressus esset, consilium cepit, quod iamdiu agitabat animo, investigandi locum ubi sancti Iacobi, et discipulorum eius Athanasii et Theodori reliquiae sitae essent. Quare ad opus tanti momenti viros peritissimos delegit in ecclesiastica dignitate constitutos, qui operarios dirigerent. Sed praeter opinionem omnium res ceciderunt. Explorato enim toto hypogeo et latebris quotquot extant adhuc circum altare maximum nihil repertum est. Demum quo maior cleri et populi ad orandum ferebatur devotio, in centro scilicet absidis post altare maius, et ante aliud altare interius effossum est pavimentum, et cum opus ad duo cubi ta processisset, occurrit operariis arca, cuius in operculo crux insculpta videbatur. Arca erat lapidibus et lateribus confecta ex antiquiori crypta ac sepulcro excerptis. Remoto coram testibus operculo, ossa reperta sunt ad tria sceleta sexus virilis pertinentia. De iis omnibus Venerabilis Frater Cardinalis Archiepiscopus Compostellanus, secundum sacri Concilii Tridentini sanctiones, auditis doctorum piorumque virorum consiliis, et lectissimorum peritorum sententiis, processuales condidit tabulas, inquisitumque est, constaret ne in repertis reliquiis de identitate corporum sancti Iacobi Maioris Apostoli et duorum discipulorum eius Athanasii et Theodori? Haec omnia ad ecclesiasticae disciplinae praecepta perpendens, adhibitoque intelligenti iudicio, annuit et approbavit. Deinde idem Venerabilis Frater Archiepiscopus Compostellanus acta omnia et sententiam suam ad Nos misit, petiitque supplex, ut sententia eadem supremo Nostrae Apostolicae auctoritatis iudicio confirmaretur.

Nos admotas Nobis preces benigne excipientes, cum probe noverimus venerabile sancti Iacobi Maioris sepulcrum inter celeberrima sanctuaria iure posse censeri, quae in toto orbe terrarum a christianis coluntur, sacrisque celebrantur peregrinationibus ad suscepta vota persolvenda: idemque a Decessoribus Nostris Paschali II, Callisto II, Eugenio III, Anastasio IV et Alexandro III datis constitutionibus fuisse privilegiis et honoribus ornatum et auctum, voluimus ut ad tantum negotium ea conferretur diligentia, quam semper Apostolica Sedes adhibere consuevit.

Quamobrem ex Sacro Concilio sacris tuendis Ritibus praeposito, aliquot S. R. E. Cardinales destinavimus, nimirum Dominicum Bartolini Praefectum, Raphaelem Monaco La valletta, Miecislaum Ledochowski, Aloisium Serafini, Lucidum Mariam Parocchi, Angelum Bianchi et Thomam Zigliara ; nec non eiusdem S. Congregationis praesules Officiales dilectos Filios Magistros Vincentium Nussi Protonotarium Apostolicum, Laurentium Salvati ab actis, Augustinum Caprara Quaesitorem de honoribus caelestium, una cum Aloisio Lauri Assessore ; quibus idem negotium examinandum commisimus. Conventu habito ad Vaticanas Nostras Aedes die XX Maii vertentis anni, omnibus ad trutinam severa disquisitione vocatis, responsum datum est u dilata, et ad mentem ». Mens vero fuit ut nonnullae animadversiones gravioris momenti accuratius diiudicarentur. — Quae res ut expedite ad exitum perveniret, iussimus dilectum Filium Magistrum Augustinum Caprara, Sanctae Fidei Promotorem Compostellam proficisci, ut ibi singula quaeque inspiceret, inquireret, referret. Ille testibus, quos prius iusiurandum adegerat auditis; compositis nonnullis contradictionibus, quae in eorum relatione subesse videbantur; examinatis archeologiae, historiae et anathomiae peritis Matriti et Composteliae, qui de re sententiam ferrent ; inspectis vetustioris loculi ruderibus et cum his, quibus arca reliquias continens constituitur, comparatis, nec non inspecto loco sub abside ubi hae inventae sunt, demum quum rursus percontatus esset peritos physicos de singulis sacrorum ossium partibus, Romam reversus accurata relatione demandato sibi munere perfunctus est. — Quare iisdem collectis comitiis ad Vaticanum die XIX Iulii huius anni dubitationum discussa caligine et veritatis lumine clarius exorto ad propositum dubium u. An sententia lata a Cardinali Archiepi» scopo Compostellano de identitate reliquiarum, quae in centro abn sidis sacelli maximi Metropolitanae eiusdem Basilicae repertae » sunt et sancto Iacobo Maiori Apostolo, eiusque discipulis Athanasio et Theodore tribuuntur, sit confirmanda in casu, et ad effectum de quo agitur? » Dilecti Filii Nostri Cardinales itemque Praesules Officiales considerantes omnia, quae proposita erant, ita vera et probata esse, ut refellere nequis posset, ideoque cognitionem rei certam adesse, quae secundum sacros canones et Summorum Pontificum Decessorum Nostrorum Constitutiones in hisce negotiis desideranda est ita rescripsere: «Affirmative, seu sententiam esse confirmandam n.

Quae cum Nobis a dilecto Filio Nostro Dominico Cardinali Bartolini, eiusdem sacrorum Rituum Congregationis Praefecto, relata fuissent, non mediocri Nos laetitia affecti sumus; et toto ex animo Deo Optimo Maximo gratias egimus , cui placitum est ut Ecclesia sua, in tanta praesertim temporum iniquitate, novo hoc thesauro ditesceret. Propterea supra dictam peculiaris sacrorum Rituum Congregationis sententiam, libenter in omnibus ratam habuimus et confirmavimus. Insuper mandavimus ut die XXV Iulii sancto Iacobo Apostolo sacra Nostrum confirmationis decretum in Ecclesia Nationis Hispanicae sanctae Mariae de Monte Serrato in Urbe dicata, post Evangelii lectionem ex ambone publicaretur, praesentibus dilecto Filio Nostro Dominico Cardinali Bartolini, Sacrorum Rituum Congregationis Praefecto, et dilectis Filiis Magistris Laurentio Salvati ab actis, Augustino Caprara Quaesitore de honoribus caelestium, una cum Aloisio Lauri Assessore et Ioanne Ponzi pro tabulario.

Nunc vero ea, quae per supradictum decretum constituta sunt solemniore Apostolicae auctoritatis documento, novoque Nostrae confirmationis actu communire volentes, Decessorum Nostrorum vestigia persecuti, nempe Benedicti XIII, Pii VII et Pii IX, qui de identitate corporum sanctorum Augustini Pontificis Doctoris, Francisci Assisiensis, Ambrosii Pontificis Doctoris, Gervasii et Protasii martyrum iudicium tulerunt; Nos quoque quibuscumque dubitationibus et controversiis diremptis, Venerabilis Fratris Nostri Cardinalis Archiepiscopi Compostellani sententiam de identitate sacrorum corporum Beati Iacobi Maioris Apostoli, et sanctorum discipulorum eius Athanasii et Theodori, ex certa scientia, atque etiam motu proprio Apostolica auctoritate approbamus et confirmamus et in perpetuum firmam et validam fore decernimus. Praeterea volumus et iubemus, ne cui fas sit sacras Reliquias, quae iam in veteri conditorio repositae sunt et sigillo super obsignatae, vel earum particulas dissociare, demere vel adsportare sub poena excomunicationis latae sententiae, cuius absolutionem Nobis et Nostris Successoribus omnino reservamus. Quamobrem committimus et mandamus universis et singulis Venerabilibus Fratribus Nostris Patriarchis, Archiepiscopis, Episcopis ceterisque Ecclesiarum Praelatis praesentes litteras in sua unumquemque provincia, dioecesi et civitate solemniter publicare, ea meliori ratione, quam expedire censuerint; ut auspicatissimus huiusmodi eventus ubique innotescat, atque aucto pietatis studio illum christiani omnes celebrent, sacrasque peregrinationes ad sacrosanctum illud sepulcrum, quemadmodum maiores nostri facere consueverunt, suscipiant. — Et quo efficacius pro Ecclesia Stancta .Dei et pro universa christiana republica sancti Iacobi Apostoli et eius discipulorum patrocinium impetrare valeamus, omnibus et singulis christianis utriusque sexus, qui vere poenitentes die per locorum Ordinarios seligenda confessi, et Christi corpore refecti in templis ubilibet sancti Iacobi Apostoli Deo dicatis, et iis deficientibus in quolibet templo ab Ordinariis designando, pro instantibus gravissimis Ecclesiae necessitatibus eiusque exaltatione, pro haeresum improbarumque sectarum extirpatione, sancti Iacobi suppetiis imploratis, pias apud Deum preces effuderint, plenariam omnium peccatorum Indulgentiam ac remissionem quae per modum suffragii etiam animabus piacularibus flammis detentis applicari possit, benigne in Domino tenore praesentium concedimus. Et quoniam nobilissima Hispanica Natio mirifica sancti Iacobi ope fidem catholicam integram inviolatamque servavit, ut Deus misericors ei gratiam impertire velit, propter quam in tanta errorum colluvione, Patrono suo apud Deum medio et sequestro ad sanctitatem religionis avitae et ad pietatis studium firmet animum, amplissimum privilegium ab Alexandro III Decessore Nostro ei concessum, lucrandi scilicet plenarium Iubilaeum eo anno quo festum sancti Iacobi XXV Iulii incidat in Dominicam diem, etiam pro venturo anno concedimus cum ea ipsa die sancto Iacobo sacra festa solemnia inventionis et elevationis corporis eius agenda erunt, ea servata methodo, et cum iisdem facultatibus in Constitutione ipsius Summi Pontificis data die XXV Iulii anni MCLXXIX contentis. Has quoque litteras et quaecumque in eis contenta nullo unquam tempore de subreptionis vel obreptionis seu nullitatis aut invaliditatis vitio seu intentionis Nostrae, vel alio quovis defectu notari, impugnari, sed semper et in perpetuum validas et efficaces esse et fore, suosque plenarios et integros effectus sortiri et obtinere ; sicque ab omnibus cuiuscumque gradus, ordinis, praeeminentiae et dignitatis censeri volumus; mandantes, ut earumdem praesentium transumptis etiam impressis manu tamen alicuius publici Notarii subscriptis, et sigillo Personae in ecclesiastica dignitate constitutae munitis, eadem prorsus fides adhibeatur, quae ipsis praesentibus adhiberetur, si forent exhibitae vel ostensae. Nulli ergo omnino hominum liceat hanc paginam Nostrae approbationis, ratificationis, reservationis, concessionis, relaxationis, commissionis et voluntatis infringere, vel ei ausu temerario contraire. Si quis autem hoc attentare praesumpserit, indignationem Omnipotentis Dei et beatorum Petri et Pauli Apostolorum eius se noverit incursurum.

Datum Romae apud Sanctum Petrum anno Incarnationis Dominicae millesimo octingentesimo octuagesimo quarto, Kal. Novembris, Pontificatus Nostri anno septimo.

CARD. SACCONI

PRODATARIUS.

CARD. CHISIUS.

VISA DE CURIA I. DE AQUILA E VICECOMITIBUS.

Loco illius Plumbi Reg. in Secret. Brevium.

CUGNONIUS.

Book Review: Peter Paul Rubens: Master of Shadows

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Today when we think of artists, we often think of emotionally or psychologically disturbed individuals, staking out radical positions, challenging authority, championing unpopular issues, or in general just being rebels. This however, is not what artists were in the 17 and 18th century, with the exception of notable figures like Caravaggio and Rembrandt, or we might add in the 19th century Van Gogh, who have, arguably, created the melancholy temperamental view of the artist.

Artists, historically, were viewed as craftsmen, who were given their talents by God to bring beauty and light into the world, to raise man up to God, by the medium of art. It is in the Netherlands that oil painting first became the supreme art by the genius of Jan van Eyck. It is in the Netherlands that an artist obtained nobility, fame, and wealth by respectability virtue and above all his devotion to the Catholic faith. That artist was Peter Paul Rubens.

There are a number of good works about Rubens’ art, and no biography can do without talking about it. However, Master of Shadows, by Mark Lamster, is about another, less known side of Rubens, not as painter, but as a diplomat and spy. He couldn’t have been born at a better time for it either. Spain and the nascent Dutch Republic were at war, and Spain, the greatest empire in the world, was on the losing side it seemed. The real losers were the inhabitants of the Spanish Netherlands (modern day Belgium) who were ruled by a foreign power that did not understand them, prevented from making peace with their Protestant neighbors, and their greatest city, Antwerp, turned into a ghost town on account of the Dutch blockade of the Schlect, the main river leading to it from the English channel. It was his native Flanders that Rubens loved, and he would devote his life to bringing it, and the rest of Europe, peace.

What is fascinating about this biography, is that we find Rubens continually involved with the great men of his time. Not just the Duke’s of Mantua, his first big patron, but the Spanish regents of the Netherlands, the Empress Maria and the Count of Lerma Philip IV’s chief counselor, Philip IV himself, the scheming Count Olivarez, the kind and upright general Spignola, and conversely, Marie de Medici, Chrales I of England, and many other contemporary artists and poets. He clashed swords, diplomatically speaking, with Cardinal Richelieu and won, he was knighted by Philip IV of Spain and also by Charles I of England. His correspondence was enormous, and his art production in the thousands of works, and even more copies of other great masters. What I have always particularly admired in Rubens, is his staunch Catholicism, married to his love of the pagan classics. Like Raphael or Michaelangelo in the 16th century, for Rubens, classical and mythological themes were often used as an expression of Christian virtue, and they saw no particular contradiction in it. This was of course, the luxury of a christian age that had survived and long since vanquished the old paganism. Nevertheless, that pagan inheritance is the key to understanding most of Rubens’ art, as well as his life.

Flemish by birth, in a city where one could speak either Flemish or French, Rubens chose to speak Italian, which at that time was the mark of an educated and intelligent man, as opposed to the 19th century where British culture popularized the Italian as thief and pirate.

What Lamster brings out about Rubens in this work is two-fold: a) His work ethic and discipline b) his moral integrity, manners and discretion. For instance, Rubens’ wife died while he was in his 30s, but he re-married in his 50s, and was celibate for the entire 20 years he was single. One of the reasons we know this, is because Richelieu wanted all dirt possible dug up on Rubens, because he knew that the later was a Spanish agent, but his vast spy network came out empty handed.

The work traces Rubens’ career, from birth in strained circumstances in Flanders, to his education at a grammar school, where he learned Latin and Greek, French and Italian. He then embarked for Italy, where he spent several years in the retinue of the Duke of Mantua, at the same time as the great composer Claudio Monteverdi was also composing for the duke. He busied himself with the normal jobs of a young artist, copying the great masters, and innovating his own techniques. He was heavily influenced by Caravaggio, and it is apart of Rubens’ genius that he was able to appropriate elements of Caravaggio’s painting, but not become a slavish copier as many of the continuators of the painter, the Caravaggisti, would later be known for. He went to Rome shortly after Caravaggio had been condemned in absentia for murdering Rannucio Tommasoni in a duel, and was able to acquire a number of commissions this way.

While in the Duke of Mantua’s retinue, he was entrusted with the job of bringing a number of paintings to Spain which were to be presented as a gift to the highly influential Duke of Lerma, the chief counselor to King Philip IV, at that time considered the greatest monarch in the world. In this first visit to the Spanish court, Rubens would be able to see up close the Spanish court and its workings, which would help him appreciate later how the Spanish work.

La_adoración_de_los_Reyes_Magos_(Rubens,_Prado)

The Adoration of the Magi, -Peter Paul Rubens The painting was made to commemorate the 12 years truce between Spain and Holland.

While back at Rome, however, received news that his mother was dying, and hastened back to Flanders. He narrowly missed his mother’s passing, but was fortunate in that around the same time, the Spanish and the Dutch were celebrating the twelve years truce (circa 1609), and were the city council of Antwerp wanted a painting to commemorate the event. Lucky for them, they had a young painter who had already acquired fame in Italy. How better, than to have a son of Antwerp paint a work celebrating a truce which would free the city economically? Thus, Rubens painted the first of his works on the theme of the Adoration of the Magi.

The painting’s meaning is clear, the kings of the earth adore the infant Jesus, bearing gifts, the gifts are the fruits of the peace, presented to the prince of peace. A man in gold fabrics kneels before the Christ child, who represents the Spanish, the man in a simple red garment represents the Dutch Republic, rich but austere. One thing that has baffled art historians, is the presence of an oriental figure standing just behind the main action, wearing glorious blue robes. Many times in depictions of this scene, oriental figures are depicted like Europeans, or depicted looking somewhat dumb, or lacking majesty. Rubens dresses him in rich blue garments and with jewels. The reason for this, is he is depicting the gifts of the orient (at that time called the East Indies), which could now flow freely while the Spanish and Dutch are not fighting each other at every corner of the world.

The work was a hit, and launched Rubens onto the international stage. It was at this point that he was invited by the Empress Isabella, the Spanish regent of the Netherlands, to undertake diplomatic work for Spain. In spite of Rubens’ many duties, his busy life in his workshop, the constant demands for his work, he nevertheless through himself into this energy and alacrity. His decorum made him trusted by Isabella, even though he was seriously mistrusted by the Spanish court for being a commoner who “worked by his hands” (something despised by the old nobility, which looked at privilege and position as something more noble than work). Philip IV would rectify this by knighting him, but he nevertheless, could not escape the veneer of a mere workman in the eyes of the Spanish aristocrats, no matter how polished his manners and splendid his decorum.

Lamster’s narrative takes us into Holland, France, and even distant England, where Rubens painted the famous Apotheosis of King James which even today adorns the ceiling at Whitehall. It is here, that Rubens, solely through his tact, decorum and discretion, outwitted Richelieu’s over-reaching and tactless ambassador’s, and prevented an alliance of England and France against Spain. What is glorious about it, is if one is not familiar with history of this period, Lamster’s narrative is simple and explanatory enough that one does not feel lost or amiss following Rubens around Europe.

At the end of his life, Rubens gave up his stardom and ambassadorial life, to retire in Flanders where he married again. He began, at this juncture, to carry out a number of landscaping works, depicting a peaceful life at home. He had labored his whole life for peace, through his art, and through his perilous missions, and it was peace he most longed for now. The twelve years truce had lapsed, and the Dutch and Spanish would be at it until the end of the Thirty Years War. That war, so destructive and pointless, tore Europe apart and left millions in misery. Thus we have one of Rubens’ last works, a picture of the Flemish landscape.

Landscape with a rainbow. -Peter Paul Rubens

The shepherds and farmers sit at ease with their wives, another is playing music, within easy site of their habitations. Its an idyllic day, with the sun shining, yet a storm which provides a cool breeze. The reality is behind that rainbow is a terrible storm on its way. On this side of the rainbow, is Flanders as it ought to be, while on the other side, is the dark stormy reality of war, both religious and political. The sad thing is the history of the Spanish Netherlands would turn out as the image of the storm, not the peaceful scene in the country. Conquered alternatively by French and Dutch, it would not know peace until the modern era.

Rubens however, is one of the greatest of painters, but understanding his works requires, like with the renaissance masters, an understanding of both the Christian world and the classical tradition which gave them birth. Understanding Rubens the man, however, requires knowing his century, and “Master of Shadows”, is a fantastic biography to start with.